TRACKING
TRANSATLANTIC
DRUG FLOWS

The global cocaine trade has seen seismic shifts in the last decade as drug traffickers looked beyond the United States to set their sights on more lucrative markets in Europe.   

Cocaine consumption in Europe has increased significantly over the last decade. The rise of cocaine has caused an unprecedented wave of drug-related violence across Europe, especially in port cities like Rotterdam. As drug use has increased, so have drug-overdose deaths.

Governments have struggled to respond to this rising threat to public health and security.

Understanding how cocaine makes its way from South America through the Caribbean to Europe, as well as the geographic and political nature of the trafficking routes that connect them, will be critical for crafting effective solutions to this crisis.

In 2020, Western and Central Europe comprised 21 percent of the global demand of cocaine. The drug is now the second most consumed illicit drug on the entire continent behind cannabis.

Europe has become an attractive destination for drug traffickers seeking higher profits and lower risks. This is due to higher market prices and lesser legal penalties for possession and consumption than in the United States.

While a kilogram of cocaine is priced at around $28,000 in the United States, the same kilogram is priced at around $40,000 in places like France and Spain—and a staggering $219,454 in Estonia.

Furthermore, European interdiction efforts in Europe and the Caribbean territories do not match U.S. disruption efforts in the Western Hemisphere. Available data suggests the European Union spends only $3-4 billion on supply-side reduction in comparison to $17.4 billion for the United States. According to European officials, this allows border security forces to interdict only around 10–12 percent of the total flow of cocaine into the continent.

Without a multipronged approach to curb Europe’s cocaine demand through higher legal penalities and transatlantic interdiction efforts, the cocaine market there will continue to boom—and with it, drug violence and health threats.

The problem begins at the source of production: South America.

Cocaine is produced from the coca plant, which is grown throughout South America. The majority of coca harvesting takes place in three countries, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru, which also serve as the starting point of the drug trade to Europe.

In 2020, these three countries alone grew an estimated 99.5 percent of the global coca cultivation.

Peru, located on the Pacific coast, is able to reach both the United States and Europe by transporting drugs through countries with high levels of trade with the European Union like Ecuador and Brazil.

Colombia’s dominance of the cocaine market, as well as its proximity to Mexico and the Caribbean, makes it the de facto supplier of the United States. In 2021, 98 percent of the forensic analyses conducted on cocaine seized in the United States traced its origin to Colombia.

However, cocaine seized in Europe had a more complex breakdown, with 67 percent originating in Colombia, 27 percent in Peru, and 5 percent in Bolivia.

Although the refined cocaine is occasionally transported directly to Europe from South America, increased patrolling in areas like Colombia’s coastline has pushed drug traffickers to diversify their routes, including through the Caribbean.

The Caribbean’s low interdiction capacity and proximity to South America makes it an attractive route for drug traffickers looking for ways to transport large amounts of cocaine from South America to Europe.

Criminal groups thrive in an atmosphere of corruption and impunity. When cocaine goes through ports and airports, drug traffickers often rely on bribes or compromised authorities to ensure their illicit cargo passes swiftly and without detection.

This intersection of corruption and impunity is best seen in commercial ports. It has been extensively reported that criminal groups have infiltrated the commercial operations of ports that enables them to introduce cocaine into shipping containers destined to Europe.

Cargo vessels offer one of the most advantageous methods of transporting cocaine because of the large volume of trade between the Caribbean and Europe.

Interact with the 3D visualization below to learn some of the ways traffickers use shipping containers to conceal cocaine.

The drug trade has significantly decreased the region’s stability.

The increased traffic of cocaine in the Caribbean has brought a significant increase in violence and has exacerbated existing corruption in the region.

This corruption and violence have compounded existing gender-based violence, gang activity, and high firearms availability.

Curbing this trade is critical for restoring security across the region.

When shipments of cocaine finally reach Europe, there are three primary points of entry. Over 70 percent of the cocaine entering Europe goes through Belgium, the Netherlands, or Spain.

The main methods of transportation are via cargo, sailing, and fishing vessels. Some drugs are trafficked through air transportation, but this is less profitable as the volumes drug traffickers can transport are smaller compared to the amount they can send via maritime routes in shipping containers.

Once the cocaine has reached its destination in Europe, the drugs are collected by drug extractors. In the Netherlands, drug extractors are typically young men often recruited from underprivileged areas and paid around €2,000 per kilogram of cocaine collected. Unless they are actually caught with drugs, they only pay a fine of €100 for trespassing into the port.

Port workers or company employees share container reference codes with these extractors to allow them pick up the drugs from the specific shipping containers.

Containers transporting perishable goods are regularly abused for this purpose, due to their expedited customs timeframe.

Cocaine’s path from South America through the Caribbean to Europe sows destruction and instability at every stage of the journey.

International cooperation is imperative for creating solutions that are both comprehensive and sustainable for all countries involved.

European stakeholders and Caribbean states must create a cohesive counternarcotics strategy.

This should combine Caribbean nations’ understanding of their region with future improvements to interdiction capabilities in Europe.

A Caribbean-European joint strategy should also prioritize strengthening the interdiction capacity of regional organizations like the Caribbean Community Implementation Agency for Crime and Security (CARICOM IMPACS). Additionally, increased cooperation with European overseas territories that serve as a gateway to the continent will be vital.

Finally, public-private sector cooperation among shipping container companies and the governments affected by the drug trade is of utmost importance. Shipping companies should prioritize rigorous employee vetting and regular screening of all port and shipping containers.

The Caribbean’s strategic geography, location, and historical ties make it the perfect link between South America and Europe. However, criminal groups take advantage of these ties to smuggle enormous amounts of cocaine across the Atlantic.

Multiparty cooperation among criminal groups at the local, regional, and international levels has enabled the transatlantic drug trade to flourish. Only equivalent cooperation among European and Caribbean governments and the private sector can begin to effectively counter the flow of cocaine.

Made possible by the generous support of the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement at the U.S. Department of State.